A statue of Xuanzang (602 – 664 CE), who is widely celebrated all across China for his works, deeds and activities to establish and propagate the Dharma

During the 7th century Tang Dynasty of China (618 – 907 CE), there arose a great Buddhist master named Xuanzang (602 – 664 CE), who became a famed monk, explorer, scholar, writer, and translator. He is particularly famous for his journey to India, which took nearly two decades to complete, from 627 – 645 CE, and his careful translation of various Buddhist scriptures.

Over the years, as the influence of his work spread, many variations of his name arose such as Tang Sanzang, Xuanzang Sanzang, Xuanzang Dashi, and Tang Seng. In fact, his story and works became influential in other Asian countries, where his name took on localised styles of pronunciation, such as Vietnam, where he is known as Huyen Trang; Japan, where he is celebrated as Genjo; and Korea, where he is called Hyeonjang. One of his greatest written works, the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, provides stunning accounts of his travels, including the geography, customs and political descriptions of the kingdoms he visited in Central and Southern Asia. Due to his courage, perseverance, passion, and great learning, Xuanzang is considered to be one of the most illustrious figures in Chinese history.

His life story and works continue to inspire millions of people in their spiritual path more than 1,300 years after his death. Even for those who are not interested in Buddhism, the accounts from his travels still serve as valuable historical resources and provide a better understanding of the cultural, geographical and political landscapes of the places he visited.

Early Life

The present-day Henan Province where Xuanzang was born

Xuanzang was the youngest of four children, born in 602 CE to a family of respected scholars and officials in Chen He Village near present-day Henan Province. He was given the birth name Chen Yi. Several of his ancestors held respectable positions during previous dynasties in China, highlighting the fact that his family placed great emphasis on learning. Some of these ancestors include:

• Chen Shi, who lived in the 2nd century, and served as a minister during the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty
• Chen Qin, Xuanzang’s great-grandfather, who served as the prefect of Shangdang (present-day Changzhi city in Shanxi Province) during the time of the Eastern Wei Dynasty
• Chen Kang, Xuanzang’s grandfather, who worked in the Imperial Academy as a professor during the time of the Northern Qi Dynasty.
• Chen Hui, Xuanzang’s father, who served as a magistrate in Jiangling County during the Sui Dynasty. However, he resigned from his position to escape the political turmoil that marked the end of the Sui Dynasty.

After his father resigned as a magistrate, he dedicated his time to educating his children on Confucian principles, classical Chinese literature, and works on filial piety. Even as a child, Xuanzang displayed an excellent aptitude for learning and a keen intellect. By the time he was just eight years old, Xuanzang had mastered many Confucian rituals, and showed great interest in Buddhism and related subjects.

However, he did not have an idyllic childhood by any means. His father passed away in 611 CE when he was just nine years old, and his mother had passed away even earlier, when he was just five years old. Perhaps the misfortunes of his early life allowed Xuanzang a unique realisation of the impermanence of life, which would eventually lead him to renounce secular life altogether.

Ordination and Travels Around China

After his father’s passing, Chensu (who was one of Xuanzang’s older brothers and a monk), played an important role in his life. Xuanzang began visiting Jingtu Monastery in Luoyang where his brother studied, and eventually developed the aspiration to become a monk.

The statue of Xuanzang in his hometown near the present-day Henan Province

The requirements and examinations to become a monk were very strict, and Xuanzang was very young. However, the abbot of Jingtu Monastery, Zhen Shanguo, made an exception for Xuanzang due to his intelligence and impressive knowledge. Xuanzang received novice monastic ordination when he was just 13 years old. The two brothers lived a peaceful existence in the monastery for several years, where Xuanzang studied various Buddhist scriptures including those from the Theravada and Mahayana schools. However, he had a particularly interest in the Mahayana Buddhist doctrine. He became well-known among the Buddhist practitioners in Luoyang for his memory, intelligence and knowledge.

Unfortunately, the peaceful life did not last. The civil war that would mark the end of the Sui Dynasty broke out, and Xuanzang and his brother sought refuge in Chang’an. In 618, the Sui Dynasty fell, and Chang’an became the new capital of the Tang Dynasty.

A digital reconstruction of the Tang Dynasty’s Chang’an City

However, there was still civil unrest in Chang’an, and many of the temples in the city were destroyed. The two brothers travelled to Chengdu in Sichuan Province and spent approximately three years in Kong Hui Monastery, furthering their study on subjects like the Abhidharma-kosa Sastra or Verses on the Treasury of Abhidharma. Xuanzang received his full monastic ordination in 622 CE at the age of 20.

When studying the scriptures, Xuanzang became confused due to mistranslation, contradictions and discrepancies in the Chinese Buddhist resources available at the time. This sparked a seven-year journey of enlightenment around China during which he visited almost all of the renowned Buddhist masters of the time to seek clarification. Xuanzang became well-known in China for his passion for learning and he gained a reputation as a promising, intelligent young man.

Faxian (337 – 422 CE)

However, the journey of enlightenment across China did not help Xuanzang to find the answers that he was seeking. In 625 CE, Xuanzang returned to Chang’an. Under the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 – 649 CE) of the Tang Dynasty, stability and order had returned to the city. It was in Chang’an that Xuanzang met an Indian Buddhist monk who spoke with him about Indian Buddhism and also another monk named Silabhadra (529 – 645 CE). Silabhadra was the abbot of Nalanda Monastery in India and was reputed to have an excellent understanding of the tenets of Buddhism.

After his exchanges with the Indian monk, Xuanzang felt the need to follow in the footsteps of another eminent Chinese Buddhist monk-explorer, Faxian (337 – 422 CE). Faxian had gone to India to gain a better understanding of Buddhist teachings and to bring back precious Buddhist scriptures to China.

In 626 CE, Xuanzang began to study Sanskrit language and became particularly interested in the Yogacara School of Buddhism.

Journey to the West

Escape from China

Emperor Taizong (598 – 649 CE)

Xuanzang and several other monks requested permission from Emperor Taizong to go to ‘the West’ (India). The Chinese at the time often referred to India as ‘the West’ because India is located to the west of China. However, their request was rejected due to the political turbulence of the time. The Tang Dynasty was young and the emperor was still working to consolidate his power. In addition, there were frequent attacks from the Gokturks along the Northern border and nobody was allowed to leave the country.

Instead of being deterred by the rejection, Xuanzang became even more determined to leave China. It is said that he experienced a vision that strengthened his resolve to go to India. The opportunity presented itself in autumn of the year 627 CE when the harvest did not yield sufficient crops. The authorities allowed citizens of Chang’an to leave the city to escape famine. Xuanzang took this opportunity to leave the city to go to the West. Since he left without the emperor’s permission, he became a fugitive.

In order not to attract attention, Xuanzang travelled during the night and hid during the day. However, when he reached the city of Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei City in Ganxu Province), he discovered that, again, nobody was allowed to leave the city without official permission. At the time, Liangzhou was the one of the commercial and cultural centres of China, and Buddhist culture there was very strong. While waiting for the opportunity to leave the country, Xuanzang taught Buddhism in the city. He stayed in Liangzhou for about one month before the local authorities heard about Xuanzang and ordered him to return to Chang’an.

The gate of Wuwei City

However, Xuanzang’s determination and noble intentions touched the Buddhist leader in Liangzhou, and he helped the young monk to slip out of the city. Xuanzang then reached the city of Guazhou, the last military town of the western border of the Tang Empire.

After his experience in Liangzhou, Xuanzang decided not to let the Guazhou authorities know that he was in the city and stayed quietly at an inn while waiting for the opportunity to leave. The situation seemed dire when a local official received a warrant for Xuanzang’s arrest. However, the local official was a pious Buddhist, and he allowed Xuanzang to leave.

After leaving Guazhou, Xuanzang prayed for guidance at the Ta’er Temple just outside of the city. At this temple, Xuanzang met a merchant, whom he later ordained as a Buddhist and his first disciple. The merchant found him a horse and introduced him to an old man who described the dangerous terrain that Xuanzang would have to navigate on his way to India.

He was not dissuaded by the old man’s advice to not continue his journey. The man then exchanged horses with Xuanzang to enable him to travel faster, and after one night, the merchant parted ways with him because he did not want to get into trouble. Xuanzang endured many difficulties during the journey as a result of travelling without a guide.

The harsh Gobi Desert that Xuanzang crossed on his journey towards greater Dharma learning

After travelling 40 kilometres into the Moheyanqi Gobi Desert, Xuanzang managed to reach the Beacon Tower which was manned by Chinese soldiers. There was only one source of water and he waited until nightfall before attempting to collect some, but was caught. Fortunately, the commander of the tower was a Buddhist who treated Xuanzang with respect. He was given food, water and helpful advice. The commander advised Xuanzang to go straight to the fourth Beacon Tower where his relative was serving as its commander. After that, Xuanzang was able to pass and get water from the fourth and the fifth Beacon Towers without difficulty.

He crossed the vast and dangerous Moheyanqi Gobi Desert to reach the first kingdom in his journey to the West, Yiwu (Hami). He almost died of thirst and experienced many mirages while crossing the vast desert. The horse saved his life once by bringing him to an oasis when Xuanzang was unable to do so himself. Xuanzang finally reached a temple and was greeted warmly by a monk of the Han ethnic group. Xuanzang mentions this temple in his biography and it is most likely the Miao’ergou Temple near the city of Hami in Xinjiang.

An ancient beacon tower in Gobi Desert

Small Kingdoms on the Way to India

The ruins of Gaochang Kingdom

When Xuanzang reached the city of Yiwu-Gaochang, the king, Qu Wentai demanded to see him. The king invited him to stay there to teach Buddhism and Xuanzang accepted. The king and Xuanzang forged a bond and they became sworn brothers. The king only let Xuanzang go after he promised to come back to Gaochang on his way back from India to teach for three years. King Qu Wentai gave the monk 25 attendants and 30 horses to accompany him on in his journey.

Snow-covered mountain in Palmir Plateau

While travelling along the Silk Road, Xuanzang was waylaid by a group of bandits. Fortunately, they left after being given some money. The group of traders who were robbed after Xuanzang, however, were not so fortunate – they were all killed by the thieves. In the spring of 628 CE, Xuanzang reached the third kingdom in his journey, Yanqi. He was not well-received in this kingdom and he only stayed there with his group for one night.

The statue of Kumarajiva (334 – 413 CE) in Kuqa County, Xinjiang, China

Xuanzang’s group continued their journey to the fourth kingdom, Kucha (present-day Kucha County in Xinjiang Province), the most prominent kingdom in the ancient Western region. The famed 4th century Buddhist scholar, Kumarajiva, was born in Kucha and had gone to India to study.

Xuanzang was given a warm reception here. He noted that people with flat heads were considered attractive in this kingdom and babies’ heads, including those who were members of royal families, were pressed with planks. As a result, everybody in Kucha had flat heads. Music and dance also played an important role in this kingdom. The evidence of Kucha culture and customs can still be seen in the murals of the Kumtura Thousand Buddha Caves.

Due to unfavourable weather, Xuanzang stayed in Kucha for two months before continuing his journey through the snow-covered Palmir Plateau. On the second day of travel, they encountered Turkic bandits. Xuanzang’s group was robbed but then something unexpected happened – the bandits left after quarrelling on how to divide the goods!

Xuanzang’s party continued its journey and encountered the snow-covered Ling Mountain where the path became very treacherous and was prone to avalanches. Some of the men succumbed to fatigue and were not able to continue, and all suffered from the extreme cold.

Kumtura Thousand Buddha Caves

The ancient murals of the Kumtura Thousand Buddha Caves

Today, archaeologists still speculate over the exact path through the mountains that Xuanzang took. Most of the mountains in the area are over 5,000 metres high and it must have been an extremely difficult trek.

In the spring of 628 CE, Xuanzang and his travelling companions reached the Central Asian region on the other side of the mountains. Xuanzang’s first destination was the Issyk-Kul Lake. In his biography, he describes the lake as surrounded by mountains, with dark green water which was salty and bitter. The lake never froze and people often referred to it as the ‘hot sea’.

Issyk-Kul Lake, described by Xuanzang as salty and bitter.

During the time of Xuanzang’s travels, the Western Turkic Khaganate dominated the Central Asian kingdoms. The state religion in this region was Zoroastrianism in which they worshiped fire, a practice which was at odds with Buddhism. After leaving the Issyk-Kul Lake, Xuanzang reached Suyab, the military and political centre of the Western Turkic Khaganate.

Suyab was located in modern-day Kyrgyzstan, and its population consisted of individuals from various countries and of a range of beliefs. The city had very few trees and the weather was cold, and the people in the region wore linens and furs to keep warm. Xuanzang and his group stayed in a temple near the lake and waited for the ruling Khan of the Western Turkic Khaganate to summon him.

When he finally met the Khan, Xuanzang noted that he was living in a very luxurious yurt (large, round tent used by nomads) decorated with a pattern of flowers and inlaid with gold. A Chinese envoy also attended the reception banquet. The Khan gave a warm reception to Xuanzang because he had heard that the monk was a sworn brother of the King of Gaochang. In addition, his guest was a monk from the Tang Empire and the Khan strived to maintain good relations with the Tang Dynasty. After this meeting, the Khan selected several military officers who were proficient in several languages to escort Xuanzang on his journey.

Xuanzang continued his journey and passed through various cities and kingdoms. He came across a city inhabited by 300 Chinese households from all over China. They had been forced to live here by the Turkic people. Although the residents of the city wore Turkish attire, they maintained Chinese customs and spoke the Chinese language.

500 kilometres from that city was the Zheshi Kingdom which consisted of several cities ruled by various kings under the Western Turkish Khaganate. They passed through desert again, and this time sandstorms made progress very difficult. After travelling approximately 250 kilometres, they arrived at the city of Samarkand, one of the most ancient cities in the world.

Western Turkic Khaganate (630 CE)

The residents of Samarkand were of Sogdian descent, and their craftsmanship was considered among the best in the world. However, because the King of Samarkand and his people did not believe in Buddhism and considered it heresy, Xuanzang and his entourage were not welcome. The local residents attacked two of Xuanzang’s disciples when they were seen praying at an abandoned temple in the city.

Fortunately, Xuanzang was brought before the King of Samarkand. He managed to convince the king to accept Buddhism after just one night of conversation. After that, Buddhism was welcomed in Samarkand.

After leaving Samarkand, Xuanzang passed through a small city of Kusana, present-day Shahrisabz in Uzbekistan, and reached the Iron Gate Pass after walking over 100 kilometres through the mountainous terrain. The pass connected South and Central Asia and was controlled by the Turkic people. Because Xuanzang was accompanied by the Khan’s military officers, he was able to pass without difficulties.

The next destination for Xuanzang was the Kingdom of Dami (Termez) where Buddhism flourished in the 7th century and where grand monasteries were located. The ruins of one such monastery, Kara-Tepe, can still be seen today. After battling the bitter cold, Xuanzang’s group encountered extreme heat in Termez, where the temperature could go above 40 degrees Celsius.

An artist’s illustration of Xuanzang

In the summer of 628 CE, Xuanzang and his entourage reached the Kingdom of Huo, in present-day Afghanistan. This kingdom was part of the Western Turkic Khaganate and was ruled by the Khan’s eldest son, Prince Tardu. The queen, who was the younger sister of the king of Gaochang, had passed away and the prince himself was very sick.

Prince Tardu requested Xuanzang to stay for several days so he could see him off to India when his condition improved. However, it turned out that the unfortunate situation was more complicated than it seemed. Upon his wife’s death, Prince Tardu had married a young woman who colluded with one of his sons to kill him. She poisoned Prince Tardu, and his adult son claimed the throne. The incident forced Xuanzang to delay his journey for about a month in order to attend the funeral rites of Prince Tardu.

After the unfortunate political intrigue in the Kingdom of Huo, Xuanzang continued his journey, again encountering snow-covered mountains where there were frequent snow storms. A hunter led the group through the difficult terrain, and they managed to arrive at the Buddhist Kingdom of Kapisi, which is near present-day Kabul. It is said that there was a large temple in the kingdom but no trace remains of it today. It took Xuanzang and his group six months to travel across the kingdom. He gave teachings and visited many sacred Buddhist places in Kapisi before continuing on the journey.

Indus River

In the city of Jalalabad, located on the south bank of the Kabul River, Xuanzang paid homage to the famed Buddha bone relic. He also visited the Shadow Cave in the mountains near Jalalabad to see the image of the Buddha inside the cave. It is said that after he prayed 200 times, the image of Lord Buddha appeared and vanished quickly. Xuanzang prayed another 200 times, and the holy image appeared again, more distinct than before. Xuanzang was overcome with emotion upon seeing the Buddha’s holy image.

In the autumn of 628 CE, Xuanzang reached the Indus River. From here, the Khan’s soldiers returned to their country because the area was not under the control of the Western Turkic Khaganate.

An artist’s illustration of Xuanzang crossing the Indus River

India

Upon crossing the Indus River, Xuanzang reached the Kingdom of Gandhara where he visited many Buddhist holy sites. Although the region had been the centre of Buddhism in central Asia, the faith was in decline. Many temples had been burned and the monks had been exiled. The kingdom was deeply influenced by Greek culture as a result of Alexander the Great’s expedition.

Upon leaving the Kingdom of Gandhara, Xuanzang travelled southeast to Kashmir, where Buddhism was an established religion. He stayed in Kashmir for approximately two years, where there were around 5,000 monks and 100 temples. In addition to Buddhism, the people of ancient India believed in Jainism and Brahmanism. Xuanzang gathered many Buddhist scriptures from this area.

During Xuanzang’s time, Buddhist scriptures needed to be recited in front of an assembly of eminent monks to verify their authenticity before they could be disseminated. This was because the scriptures were originally passed down through oral transmission. When the assembly gathered, they examined the scriptures and discussed the meanings of their contents in order to create authoritative documents for later generations. Whenever the scriptures were deemed inaccurate, they were corrected in accordance with the opinion of the majority.

The gold coin of King Kanishka

In his book, the Great Tang Records of the Western Region, Xuanzang mentions King Kanishka of Kushana who ordered the Fourth Buddhist Council to be held in 100 CE. Xuanzang noted that there were approximately 300,000 scriptures in Kashmir. They were invaluable to Xuanzang and he spent one whole year studying them thoroughly.

In August 629 CE, Xuanzang left Kashmir for Nalanda University to further his Buddhist studies. On the way there, Xuanzang and his disciples passed through the Pradesh Forest where they encountered a group of robbers who tried to kill them. Fortunately, they found a hidden water tunnel that provided a passage for them to escape.

Following the harrowing experience, the group arrived at the Kingdom of Cinabhukti. The people in this kingdom were familiar with Chinese culture because a Chinese prince had lived in the area during the Han Dynasty. The travellers enjoyed great hospitality here and stayed in Cinabhukti for almost six months.

The holy Ganges River

In the spring of 631 CE, Xuanzang arrived at the Ganges River. Hindus consider the Ganges a holy river and believe that its waters can purify sins. He recalled that the water was very clean. However, an unfortunate event occurred after he reached the holy river. The followers of a local goddess abducted Xuanzang. He was chosen to be killed as an offering to the goddess due to his pleasing appearance, an offering that they mistakenly thought would appease the deity. Believing that his end was near, Xuanzang prayed silently. It was during this time that another miracle occurred. A strong wind arose and created huge waves in the river. The followers of the goddess thought that they had angered her and decided to delay their sacrificial rituals. Thus Xuanzang’s life was saved.

In the summer of 631 CE, Xuanzang reached Kapilavastu, Buddha Shakyamuni’s hometown. This was where Prince Siddharta Gautama, known as Buddha Shakyamuni after his enlightenment, was born. After walking about 50 kilometres, Xuanzang arrived at the pagoda built by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Dynasty who ruled over almost all of the Indian subcontinent and became a devout Buddhist in later life.

The cremation site of Buddha Shakyamuni in Kushinagar

Next, Xuanzang visited Kushinagar, the place where Buddha passed away. There was a pagoda there on which was carved the story of the Buddha’s path to Nirvana at the age of 80. Then, Xuanzang travelled to Sarnath, the place where Buddha Shakyamuni taught for the first time after he achieved Enlightenment.

In his biography, Xuanzang described Sarnath as a place filled with magnificent temples and with a great number of Sangha members. This was the case even though at the time of Xuanzang’s visit, Buddhism was in decline. After Sarnath, Xuanzang visited Vaishali (near present-day Patna). Here too, Xuanzang faced the sad reality that Buddhism was in decline. There were hundreds of temples but most of them had been abandoned and only a small number still functioned as centres of religious study and thought.

The statue of Buddha Shakyamuni in Sarnath

From Vaishali, Xuanzang proceeded to Bodhgaya, the place where Buddha Shakyamuni achieved Enlightenment. To commemorate that momentous event, the king at the time had erected two sculptures of the Buddha at the Mahabodhi Temple. It was said that if the sculptures were buried by earth, Buddhism would perish. Xuanzang saw that the sculptures were partially buried and he was greatly disturbed.

After all the courage and composure that he had shown in the face of the many challenges of his long journey, Xuanzang was overcome by emotion to see the decline of the Buddhist faith that he loved so much.

After visiting several other important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India, Xuanzang headed to the main destination of his journey, Nalanda Monastery.

Nalanda Monastery

The ruins of Nalanda Monastery in Bihar State

Nalanda Monastery was located in the Magadha Kingdom, in present-day Bihar State of India, and was a major Buddhist centre. It is said that between the 5th and the 6th centuries BCE, Buddha Shakyamuni had delivered lectures in the mango grove nearby. One of his disciples, Shariputra, attained Nirvana there. Xuanzang finally arrived at Nalanda in the autumn 631 CE, but the story of his courage and arduous journey had preceded him. When he arrived, the sangha gave the traveller a grand welcome.

Although Buddhism was in decline in India, Nalanda maintained its reputation as the foremost Buddhist institution of the time and had the support of kings and members of the royal family. Some people consider Nalanda the first university in ancient India and about 10,000 monks lived and studied there. They studied the Mahayana doctrines, worldly classics such as Indian classical logic, Sanskrit theory, medical science and mathematics. Every day, 100 lectures were held at the monastery and the disciples maintained strict awareness and discipline.

Another picture of the Nalanda University ruins

In his book, the Great Tang Records of the Western Region, Xuanzang mentioned that the King of India provided Nalanda with the tax revenue from over 100 cities and towns. In addition, over 200 families supplied the monastery with large quantities of rice and dairy products. Therefore, the residents of Nalanda were free to focus on their studies instead of worrying about subsistence, as the pursuit of knowledge was considered a higher pursuit than any other activity.

When Xuanzang arrived, the abbot of Nalanda was Silabhadra (529 – 645 CE) who was already over 100 years old. He was a member of a royal family and widely respected. Due to his old age and illness, Silabhadra was considering entering death meditation to pass into his next life. However, he had dreamt of the arrival of Xuanzang, and predicted that he would spread the doctrine of the Buddha to many people. When Xuanzang met with Silabhadra, the two seemed to share a special chemistry. A grand ceremony was held where Xuanzang was formally accepted as the abbot’s disciple. This was perhaps the happiest moment of Xuanzang’s life.

An artist’s illustration of Xuanzang and Silabhadra in the Xuanzang Memorial Hall in Nalanda

In his book, In the Footsteps of the Buddha, Rene Grousset wrote about the fateful meeting between Xuanzang and Silabhadra:

The Chinese pilgrim had finally found the omniscient master, the incomparable metaphysician who was to make known to him the ultimate secrets of the idealist systems… the founders of Mahayana idealism, Asanga and Vasubandhu … Dignaga …
Dharmapala had in turn trained Silabhadra. Silabhadra was thus in a position to make available to the Sino-Japanese world the entire heritage of Buddhist idealism, and the Siddhi Xuanzang’s great philosophical treatise … is none other than the Summa of this doctrine, the fruit of seven centuries of Indian [Buddhist] thought.

~ Rene Grousset, In the Footsteps of the Buddha

In Nalanda, Xuanzang was treated very well. Two servants were assigned to help him and he was also allowed the great honour of travelling by elephant. In Nalanda, only 10 out of 10,000 monks were allowed to travel by elephant. Prior to starting his formal instruction, Xuanzang visited the sacred Rajgir Hill, which was associated with the story of Ajatashatru who imprisoned his father King Bimbisara so he could take his throne. Bimbisara requested to be imprisoned near a hill where he could catch sight of the Buddha passing in the morning and evening.

Rajgir Hill, where King Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son King Ajatashatru deposed his father in a forcible takeover of the throne. Both the king and his son were contemporaries of the historical Lord Buddha.

In the spring of 632 CE, Silabhadra began instructing Xuanzang on the Stages of Yogic practice, which was considered the most important of the scriptures of Buddhism. The lecture lasted 15 months. After it was completed, Xuanzang repeated the study of the Stages of Yogic practice three times from beginning to end. He also received an introduction into the theories of logic and the languages of ancient India. Xuanzang felt at home with the rigorous learning environment in Nalanda. In total, he studied in Nalanda for five years.

Palm leaf manuscript. Before paper was used in India, scriptures were written on palm leaves in the Sanskrit language. Palm leaves are naturally resistant to moisture and insects, and scriptures written on them can last hundreds of years. The Sanskrit scriptures were carved into the leaves with cutting tools and then covered with pigment.

After five years, Xuanzang decided to travel again to gain more knowledge. For the next three years, he travelled around India and recorded in detail what he saw and learnt in his biography. In the spring of 640 CE, Xuanzang returned to Nalanda Monastery and told Silabhadra that he wanted to return to China. However, Silabhadra advised him to delay his trip and instead participate in a series of scriptural debates with the monks of the Yoga School.

His performance in these debates would determine the reputation of his teacher. The loser of the debate would have to either withdraw from public discourse or switch to the other’s school of thought. At the debate, the students of both sides came around to Xuanzang’s point of view, and his opponents abandoned the debate. Due to Xuanzang’s deep knowledge and skills in debate, the Yogacara School saw a revival and his reputation as a learned Buddhist master grew.

A map of ancient Nalanda Monastery by Alexander Cunningham. At its peak, Nalanda Monastery was home to over 10,000 monks.

However, the fame and reputation did not lessen his wish to return to China – he had achieved his main purpose, which was to clear up the discrepancies in Buddhist scripture and he had gained the knowledge to spread the correct Buddhist teachings in China.

But Xuanzang also had to participate in a series of unexpected scriptural debates before he returned. As he was victorious in debate after debate, stronger opponents came to challenge him. On one occasion, he was summoned by the King of Eastern India. Nalanda Monastery rejected the invitation on the grounds that Xuanzang was planning to return to China. The king was outraged, and threatened to destroy Nalanda if Xuanzang did not come. Then, Xuanzang received a similar invitation from the powerful King Harsha.

King Harsha had been enthroned at the age of 17. Within six years, his kingdom was known for its military strength. He was often compared to another great Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, who had been ruthless military leader who had then converted to Buddhism. By 612 CE, he had unified most of Northern India under his empire. Harsha was a powerful yet benevolent ruler, and tolerant of all religions. His support was critical for the survival of Buddhism because the king’s generosity meant that the monks in Nalanda Monastery could live comfortably.

An artist’s illustration of King Harsha

In the winter of 640 CE, King Harsha and the King of Eastern India were at a standoff over Xuanzang. But due to King Harsha’s powerful influence, the King of Eastern India withdrew his invitation and threat. According to Xuanzang’s biography, King Harsha was eager to meet him and welcomed him at night with thousands of torches lit up along the Ganges River as a welcome.

During this meeting, King Harsha made the announcement that he would sponsor a nationwide religious debate in the capital of his empire, Kannauj. Xuanzang would play a major role in the debate while King Harsha facilitated the exchange of ideas. Wise men from various sects in India were invited to participate and offer their opinions on Xuanzang’s ideas.

The event was considered one of the greatest religious debates in the history of India. King Harsha, the King of Eastern India and 18 other kings attended the event along with 3,000 monks, 2,000 representatives of the Hindu religion, and over 1,000 monks from the Nalanda Monastery chosen for their knowledge and eloquence.

After the opening ceremony, Xuanzang commenced a lecture about his ideas. The debate involved a system of rewards and penalties. Xuanzang declared that if anyone could successfully refute his Buddhist concepts, he would kill himself as a penalty. King Harsha had Xuanzang’s ideas written out and displayed prominently so all potential opponents could study them.

On the day of the debate, and as always, Xuanzang spoke with eloquence. His efforts and rigorous study, knowledge, gift of languages and personal charisma paid off and his reputation as a genuine Buddhist master grew. Five days passed and nobody came forward to challenge him. However, the event was sabotaged. King Harsha’s respect for Xuanzang made followers of the other religions jealous. Because they could not challenge Xuanzang in debate, they tried to create chaos by not challenging him. 18 days passed without anyone challenging him and by the last day of the event, he had converted many people. He was praised as a great Buddhist master and earned even more respect from King Harsha. His achievement was unprecedented as never before had such a challenge remained unanswered.

Palace ruins at the former Kingdom of Harsha, whose king was a great patron of Buddhism.

King Harsha’s younger sister was interested in Hinayana Buddhism and because of her influence, the king himself had become interested in that branch of Buddhism. However, due to Xuanzang’s influence, the princess converted from the Hinayana way of thought to the Mahayana. Later that year, King Harsha sent envoys to the Tang Empire, and the Tang Empire also sent envoys to the Harsha Kingdom. It was the first time that China and India exchanged diplomatic envoys. This contact was to last for half a century. This relationship led to a great exchange of ideas at the time, including the Chinese learning the method of refining white sugar from India.

Xuanzang continued to collect manuscripts of Buddhist classics from around India that would come to have significant influence on Buddhism in China. Xuanzang finally left India for China in the late spring of 643 CE, although King Harsha and the monks of Nalanda Buddhist were reluctant to see him go. Four years after the great debate, King Harsha passed away. Upon the passing of this Buddhist monarch, chaos reigned in northern India and Buddhism fell into further decline.

China After Xuanzang’s Departure

Political Situation

In the 15 years Xuanzang had spent in India, the political situation had changed dramatically in and around his homeland. Some years after Xuanzang left the Western Turkic Khaganate, the Khan was assassinated. The unfortunate event led to the decline of the Western Turkic Khaganate. One year after his departure, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate fell, and was no longer a threat to China’s north-western borders. Emperor Taizong was able to consolidate his power and extended his influence to the kingdoms of the Taklamakan Desert.

Return Journey to China

Xuanzang had departed Chang’an alone as a fugitive, but his return journey to China could not be more different. He was accompanied by many followers and carried a large number of Buddhist books and scriptures. A return by sea would have been less arduous but Xuanzang chose to return over land to keep the promise that he made at the beginning of the journey – a vow to the King of Gaochang that, on his way back to China, he would stop at Gaochang and teach for three years.

Xuanzang’s pilgrimage map

He encountered the first challenge as his group was crossing the Indus River. Big waves resulted in the loss of approximately 50 books, exotic flowers and food. After crossing the Indus, Xuanzang crossed the mountains to reach the Palmir Plateau once again. They trekked for seven days before reaching the mountain pass. Another seven days later, they reached the highest peak where there was a village of 100 homes. The villagers served as their guides.

Xuanzang’s journey to India followed the Middle Silk Road route, but his journey back followed the Southern Silk Road which was expected to save him time. In 643 CE, when he was preparing to climb the Palmir Plateau, Xuanzang became the first person to describe it in writing. He reached the Qusha Kingdom and heard news from a merchant that his sworn brother, the King of Gaochang had passed away, and his kingdom had become part of the Tang Empire.

Three years earlier, the relationship between Gaochang and the Tang Empire had worsened. The King of Gaochang had allied himself with the Turkic people against the Tang Empire to control the Silk Road. Tang cavalry forces attacked his kingdom. It is said that the king passed away in his palace, and the kingdom surrendered to the Tang Empire without a fight. Realising it had become impossible for him to keep his promise to the late king, Xuanzang decided to return directly to the Tang Empire via the southern route.

A map of the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan

In the winter of 643 CE, Xuanzang reached the famous Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan. 80 kilometres from the capital, there was a tomb of dead mice which was worshipped by the local people. Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western Region narrates a story of how a group of mice saved Khotan during a battle. In 1900, the archaeologist Marc Aurel Stein found a piece of wood in the Hotan Desert, where the Kingdom of Khotan had once stood. It carried an illustration of a mouse with a human body and a crown on its head. Stein believed that this illustration was the mouse king recorded by Xuanzang. The Khotan Kingdom specialised in the trade of carpets, silk, and jade. The people of present-day Hotan still weave carpets using their hands and their jade jewellery and decorations are highly valued.

Xuanzang was warmly received in Khotan but felt anxious. He wished to gain the forgiveness of the Chinese Emperor before reaching China. The monk wrote a letter to Emperor Taizong to admit his mistake of leaving the country without the emperor’s permission. He also described his experiences and the success of his pilgrimage. While waiting in Khotan, Xuanzang tried to gather more Buddhist statues and scriptures. Six months later, he finally received a reply from the emperor. To his surprise, the emperor was not enraged that he left China without permission, and had actually arranged for his journey back to China.

The ruins of ancient Khotan

Encouraged by this news, in the summer of 644 CE, Xuanzang left for Chang’an. He crossed the southern edge of Taklamakan Desert where the weather and wind were unpredictable and water was scarce. After a difficult and trying journey through the desert, Xuanzang reached Dunhuang, a territory of the Tang Empire. Emperor Taizong had officers waiting to receive him there.

In 645 CE, Xuanzang arrived back in the land of his birth, very different from the Xuanzang who had left Chang’an 17 years before as a fugitive monk. He returned as an eminent Buddhist scholar and brought back 699 Buddhist scriptures that consisted of:

• Mahayanist sastras: 192
• Mahayanist sutras: 224
• Mahasangika sutras, Vinaya and sastras: 15
• Sthavira sutras, Vinaya, and sastras: 14
• Sammitiya sastras, sutras, and vinaya: 15
• Mahisasaka sastras, sutras, and vinaya: 22
• Dharmagupta sutras, sastras and vinaya: 42
• Kasyapiya sastra, sutras and vinaya: 17
• Sarvastivadin sastras, vinaya, sutras: 67
• Dharmagupta sutras, vinaya, and sastra: 42
• Sheng-lun (Etymological treatises): 13
• Yin-lun (treatises on the science of inference): 36

He also brought with him seven invaluable Buddhist sculptures, over 100 Sarira relics, and exotic plants and flowers.

The following day, the Prime Minister of the Tang Empire presided over a grand ceremony to welcome the eminent scholar who had brought back spiritual knowledge for the Tang Empire and the future generations of Chinese Buddhists. However, Xuanzang did not attend the ceremony. Instead, he stayed alone in his room because he saw the celebration as contrary to the Buddhist values according to which he lived his life.

An illustration of Xuanzang’s return to China in Dunhuang Mural in Cave No. 103

Life in China

An artist’s illustration of Emperor Taizong

Not long after his return, he was summoned by Emperor Taizong. The emperor was not particularly interested in Buddhism, but he was impressed by Xuanzang’s knowledge of the Western Region, the accounts of his journey, and his knowledge of the customs of the countries in Central and South Asia. Emperor Taizong subsequently called him the “Jewel of the Empire” and offered him the honour of a position as his court advisor on the Western lands. However, Xuanzang politely refused this and instead chose to focus his efforts on translating the Sanskrit scriptures he had brought from his journey.

In 648 CE, Emperor Taizong built the Temple of Great Compassionate Blessing for his mother, and Xuanzang was chosen to be its abbot. The temple was the largest in Chang’an. Unfortunately, his tenure was not without incident. One of his disciples had an affair with an imperial princess and when it became known, the disciple was executed. This incident was a blow for Xuanzang.

Fortunately, Emperor Taizong still had great faith in Buddhism and Xuanzang. In 649 CE, the monarch fell seriously ill and realising that his end was near, he asked for Xuanzang to wait on him. After Emperor Taizong’s passing, Xuanzang devoted even more time and effort on his translation work, sleeping for only a few hours a day. It seemed that the emperor’s passing had reminded him of his own mortality and the limited time he had to complete his work for the benefit of future generations.

Construction of Wild Goose Pagoda

The statue of Xuanzang in front of Wild Goose Pagoda

Fortunately for Xuanzang, the newly enthroned Emperor Gaozong also had great respect for Xuanzang. In 652 CE, Xuanzang managed to convince the new emperor to build the Wild Goose Pagoda in the complex of the Temple of the Great Compassionate Blessing to house scriptures and other Dharma texts. Xuanzang supervised the building of Wild Goose Pagoda in the Great Compassionate Blessing Temple complex based on stupa designs he had seen in India.

Upon the completion of the pagoda, Xuanzang received the sad news that his teacher, Silabhadra had passed away. Xuanzang recalled the kindness and the advice of his teacher, and that made him even more determined to translate as many of the scriptures as possible. With the support of Emperor Gaozong, many eminent monks from various temples and government officials were engaged to help him. His work was not without challenges and difficulties. The emperor’s unwavering support for Xuanzang and for Buddhism made some officials anxious that the emperor was neglecting the development of the empire. Xuanzang became the target of criticism and was caught in a difficult position.

He tried to make the most of his relationship with the imperial court. In 656 CE, he sent a request to the court that the precedence of Taoism over Buddhism be abolished. Unfortunately, Emperor Gaozong was not pleased and rejected this suggestion outright.

Another statue of Xuanzang at Wild Goose Pagoda

Faxiang School of Buddhism

Xuanzang established the Faxiang School of Buddhism based on the scriptures of the Stages of the Yogic Practice. He was assisted by his disciples in establishing its foundation and writing the commentary for this school of Buddhism.

One of them in particular, Kuiji (632 – 682 CE), would later become known as the first patriarch of the Faxiang School of Buddhism. In addition to Kuiji, Xuanzang also had several other disciples, including Woncheuk from Korea and Dosho from Japan. These two disciples would play an important role in spreading Faxiang Buddhist doctrines in Korea and Japan. Dosho would later return to Japan and establish the Hosso school of Buddhism that was based the Stages of the Yogic Practice. The Hosso School would became very influential in Japan during the 7th and 8th centuries.

Writing and Translations

The Great Tang Records on the Western Region

The Great Tang Records of the Western Region

At the time of Xuanzang’s return to China, the Turkic people in the north were no longer a threat to China. However, the Turkic people in the Western Turkic Khaganate still posed a threat. Emperor Taizong wanted to know everything about the Western kingdoms and realised Xuanzang was familiar with the geography, people and customs there. The emperor instructed Xuanzang to record an account of his 19-year journey to the western region. In 646 CE, Xuanzang completed this writing in the 12 volumes of the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions. Emperor Taizong was impressed with the detailed descriptions in his writings.

The book contained such comprehensive and accurate information about the terrain, politics and customs of the countries in the Western region that it became an authoritative source for records used by archaeologists to obtain a better understanding of the way of life of the people in Central and South Asia during that period. This book was later translated into French in 1857 by Sinologist Stanislas Julien.

The Translation of Buddhist Scriptures

According to Der Huey from Beijing University, Xuanzang’s efforts in translating the Buddhist scriptures can be divided into three periods:

1. 645–650: Xuanzang was focused on the translation of the Stages of the Yogic Practice
2. 651-660: Xuanzang was focused on the translation of Abhidharmakosa-sastra
3. 661-664: Xuanzang was focused on the translation of Mahaprajna Paramita sutra

The Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra

Upon completing the Great Tang Records on the Western Region, Xuanzang again devoted his time to scriptural translation and assigned a number of monks to help him in these efforts. Sleeping for less than four hours a day, he was unequivocally focused on this work. His accurate and careful translations of these scriptures were an important factor in the growth of Buddhism in China, and in facilitating better understanding of Buddhism across the world.

In 648 CE, Xuanzang presented Emperor Taizong with the translation of the scriptures of the Stages of the Yogic Practice. Upon reading the translation of these scriptures, the emperor became interested in Buddhism.

In the autumn of 659 CE, the 60-year-old Xuanzang arrived at the Yuhua Temple in Shaanxi Province, a palace that Emperor Gaozong had transformed into a temple. This was where Xuanzang would spend the last days of his life and it was here that he carried out the translation of the largest collection of scriptures, the Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra.

The translation of the Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra was completed in four years. From the time of his return from India, Xuanzang performed the incredible feat of translating 47 sutras in 1335 volumes.

Later Life and Death

A 9th century illustration of Xuanzang in the Dunhuang Caves

In 657 CE, Xuanzang accompanied Emperor Gaozong to Luoyang. It was the first time he had returned since childhood. Most of his relatives, with the exception of an elderly sister, had passed away. With the help of locals, he was able to locate the tombs of his parents, which had been neglected for a long time. He asked for leave from the emperor to take care of his parents’ tombs and to remain for a time in the place where he had first embarked on his journey to a life devoted to Buddhism. When he was 57 years old, the long hours of work started to catch up with him and affect his health. Xuanzang became ill and would never recover. Meetings in the imperial court and his other obligations worsened his condition.

Upon completing the translation of the Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra, Xuanzang felt that his life’s work was done and informed his disciples that his time was near. He praised the Buddha for blessing him with the visions in the Shadow Cave, and on the 8th day of the first lunar month in 664 CE, one of his disciples dreamt that one of the colossal pagodas had collapsed. The next day, Xuanzang collapsed and had to be carried to his room. He told his disciples that he wanted his body to be wrapped in the simplest way and put in a quiet place after his death. He also wished for his body to be buried in the White Deer Plain in the east of Chang’an.

Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty (r. 649 – 683 CE)

Xuanzang passed away on February 5, 664 CE at Yuhua Temple. He was buried on April 14. However, his funeral ceremony was neither simple nor quiet. Historical records state that over one million people, royals and commoners, Buddhist and non-Buddhist, participated in his funeral procession. To honour Xuanzang’s memory, Emperor Gaozong cancelled all audiences for three days following his death.

Xuanzang was originally buried in the White Deer Plain as he had wished. However, five years after his death, the emperor had Xuanzang’s remains moved to Fanchuan, south of Chang’an in the present-day Shaanxi Province. At some point, his tomb was opened and his remains were sent to Buddhist institutions all over China as holy relics.

Xuanzang Dagoba in the Xingjiao Temple, Shanxi Province where Xuanzang’s remains used to be buried, is today a popular pilgrimage site for Buddhists to visit. Some of his remains have become important relics and objects of veneration. They are secured in these locations:

• In the Temple of Great Compassionate Blessing, some of his relics are enshrined in a golden pagoda adorned with precious jewels.
• Part of Xuanzang’s skull is also rumoured to be stored in Wenshu Monastery in Chengdu, Sichuan.
• In 1942, soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army brought part of his remains from Nanjing to Japan. The remains are now secured in Yakushi-ji in Nara, Japan.
• In 1957, the Chinese government gave a small piece of Xuanzang’s bone relic to India as a gift. Today, the relic is preserved in the newly rebuilt Nalanda University. The skull was originally located in the Temple of Great Compassion until 1956.

Legacy

Xuanzang Memorial Hall in the new Nalanda University complex in India

Prior to Xuanzang’s journey to the West, the history of ancient India was largely unrecorded. Xuanzang’s book, the Great Tang Records on the Western Region, contains the detailed records of the social customs, geographical and political aspects of the countries in South and Central Asia. It is still considered a significant history book even today.

Later explorers and archaeologists such as Alexander Cunningham used it as a reference during their archaeological excavations. In 1861, Cunningham found the ruins of Nalanda Monastery, which by then was covered by forest and was subsequently reawakened due to interest in its role in India’s religious heritage.

The interior of Xuanzang Memorial Hall in the new Nalanda University complex

Some believe that Xuanzang’s influence on the history of India is second to none and that without his book, it would have been impossible to fully understand the history of the subcontinent. However, Xuanzang’s greatest legacy is his courage, perseverance and passion that continue to inspire many people today to embrace a spiritual path in life.

Books on Xuanzang

Xuanzang’s life story and his journey to the West continue to inspire many people over 1,300 years after his death.

• The Real Tripitaka (p. 11 – 130) by Arthur Waleys (1952) contains information about Xuanzang.
• In the Footsteps of the Buddha (Sur les Traces du Boudda) (1929), a book by Rene Grousset contains the biography of Xuanzang. The book discusses the life of Chinese pilgrims in the time of the Tang Dynasty.
• The biography of Xuanzang by the monk, Huili. This book would later be translated by Samuel Beal. The book was also translated by Thomas Watters and edited by Rhys Davids and SW Bushell in 1905.
• The story of Xuanzang also inspired the writing of a fictional account, Journey to the West by Wu Cheng’en from the Ming Dynasty.
• In the Yuan Dynasty, the playwright Wu Changling wrote a play about Xuanzang’s journey to the west in search of Buddhist scriptures.

CNTV’s Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Documentary

The enduring fascination and deep interest in Xuanzang’s life has led to extensive coverage about his life, from cartoons to educate the young all to feature-length blockbuster films, from comics that emphasise significant events in his life to intense scholarly biographies. It would be impossible to list them all here; below is just one example, in the form of an extremely well-produced documentary from CCTV-9, which is the documentary channel of China’s state network CNTV.

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 1 and 2

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart12.mp4

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 3 and 4

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart34.mp4

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 5 and 6

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart56.mp4

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 7 and 8

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart78.mp4

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 9 and 10

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart910.mp4

Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage Part 11 and 12

Or view the video on the server at:
https://video.tsemtulku.com/videos/XuanzangPilgrimagePart1112.mp4

Recommended Books

These books are just some of many publications containing information on Xuanzang and his life, works and deeds, as well as some of his translations.

Exploration in the Middle Ages (click to download PDF)	The Journey to the West Volume I (click to download PDF)
The Life of Hiuen Tsiang by Samuel Beal (click to download PDF)	The Prajna Paramita Heart Sutra (click to download PDF)
The Sutra of the Master Healing (click to download PDF)

The texts above were sourced from legitimate book-hosting services offering these texts for free download. They are made available here for purely educational, non-commercial purposes.

 
Sources:

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang
• http://www.iep.utm.edu/xuanzang/
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xuanzang
• https://www.travelchinaguide.com/silk-road/history/traveler-xuanzang.htm
• http://www.chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php/Xuanzang_or_Hsüan-tsang
• http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/4sub8/entry-5449.html
• http://www.silk-road.com/artl/hsuantsang.shtml
• http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Xuan-Zang-to-build-another-bridge-to-India/article16086908.ece
• http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Xuan-Zang-stayed-in-Vijayawada-to-study-Buddhist-scriptures/article16091816.ece
• http://www.monkeytree.org/silkroad/xuanzang.html
• https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/xuanzang.html
• https://www.bhantedhammika.net/essays/xuanzang-on-sri-lanka
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuanzang_(Journey_to_the_West

For more interesting information:

• The Explorers category on my blog
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• Kizil Grottoes – The Thousand-Buddha Caves
• The Great Female Master- Jetsun Lochen Rinpoche
• Kukai Kobo Daishi: The Esoteric Monk of Shingon Buddhism
• Emperor Kangxi | 康熙皇帝
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• Danzan Ravjaa: The Controversial Mongolian Monk
• Lama Anagarika Govinda: The Pioneer Who Introduced Tibetan Buddhism to the World
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• George Roerich – Light of the Morning Star

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