History

The first unified Tibetan kingdom was known as Tubo or Tu Fan. It was established by one of the greatest leaders in the nation’s history, King Songtsen Gampo. King Songtsen was the first monarch to expand Tibet’s power beyond its traditional strongholds of Lhasa and the Yarlung Valley. He is also credited with bringing Buddhism to the country.

Map of Tibet. Click to enlarge.

In 641 AD, King Songtsen married Princess Wencheng of China’s Tang Dynasty. It was a political marriage aimed at strengthening ties between the powers, a bond further reinforced by the 710 AD marriage between King Tride Tsuktsen of Tibet and Princess Jincheng of China.

The alliance created by these royal marriages brought the two powers so close that Tibetans became involved in Chinese politics, culture and economy. This close relationship was commemorated with the Monument of the Tang-Tubo Alliance, also known as the Changqing Alliance Tablet; one of the three tablets still stands in front of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Tibet.

Monument of the Tang-Tubo Alliance, outside the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa, Tibet. Click to enlarge.

The last Tubo king, Langdharma, was an adherent of the Bön religion. His efforts to eradicate Buddhism from Tibet caused great internal strife and when he passed away, his sons and grandsons fought among themselves for the throne. As regional warlords took advantage of rebellions against the monarchy, the kingdom collapsed and one of Langdharma’s grandsons, Kyide Nima Gon, was forced to flee to the remote Ngari region after he was defeated in battle. The kingdom he built for himself in Ngari grew to become the Guge Kingdom. To avoid the type of internal fighting he had seen in his early years, Kyide divided Guge into three parts between his three sons.

The Guge Kingdom was a vigorous supporter of Buddhism. The governors were said to be enlightened, and they are credited with the construction of the Tuolin Monastery as well as the translation of Buddhist scriptures.

However, as Buddhism grew, so did the monks’ power and influence. To counter this perceived threat, the last king of Guge decided to promote Catholicism and build Catholic churches. This caused an uprising that led to the fall of the Guge Kingdom.

Introduction and Spread of Buddhism

In the middle of the 3^rd Century, the 28^th king of Tibet received the first Buddhist scriptures. According to legend, the scriptures fell on the roof of Yambulagong, Tibet’s first fortress, located in the Yarlung Valley area where the central Tibetan civilisation was born.

By the 6^th Century, the Yarlung kings had unified much of Central Tibet. The 32^nd Tibetan king, Namri Songten (570 – 619), extended Tibetan influence into Asia and defeated the Qiang tribes at the border of China.

Tibet became a regional power during the rule of Namri Songtsen’s son, Songtsen Gampo, and her armies were seen as a threat to the Tang Dynasty in China as they continued to conquer inner Asia. In a bid to halt the impending invasion, Nepal and China reluctantly offered tributes, as well as alliances through marriage, to Songtsen Gampo. The king’s Chinese and Nepalese brides brought their belief in Buddhism with them. With the royal marriages, Buddhism soon gained royal patronage; the king enacted a law that made it mandatory for all Tibetans to be Buddhists, ensuring that Buddhism eventually became an integral part of Tibetan culture.

A statue of King Songtsen Gampo

As Buddhism flourished, King Songtsen Gampo began the construction of two temples to house two images of Buddha. A fort was also constructed on the site that would later become the Potala Palace.

This connection with China and Nepal would have other impacts on Tibet’s Buddhist faith. Through their relationship with China, sciences such as medicine and astronomy were introduced to Tibet. A native Tibetan script was also developed from Indian Sanskrit origins; it was initially used for the translation of Buddhist scriptures.

Following the reign of Songtsen Gampo, Tibet’s influence grew and extended across India, Nepal, northern Pakistan and Turkestan. Tibetan armies conquered Sichuan and Gansu, forcing the Chinese to recognise the borders of their conquests. Following this recognition, a second treaty was created and signed on stone, stating that the region to the east would be Great China, the region to the west would be Great Tibet, and that there was to be no warfare, hostile invasion, or seizure of territory from either frontier.

“Tibetans shall be happy in Tibet and Chinese will be happy in China.”

But it was to be the establishment of Samye Monastery, the first monastery that systemised the training of Tibetan monks and translation of Buddhist scriptures, that introduced Buddhism to Tibet on a grand scale. By the 9^th Century, there were many schools of Buddhism existing based on the original teachings of the Buddha Shakyamuni.

There was, however, far from a unified belief. Followers were divided between the scholastic traditions of Indian Buddhism and the mystical tantric teachings of the Bön faith. There were also adherents of the Chinese tradition of Buddhism. Following the Great Debate of Samye, a two-year debate which saw the defeat of Chinese scholars by Indian pandits, King Trisong Detsen decided in favour of Indian Buddhism, which favoured a gradual approach to enlightenment.

King Trisong Detsen

There was much opposition to this decision, mainly by supporters of the Bön faith, which was the native religion of Tibet. This opposition resulted in the death of the next Tibetan King, Tri Ralpachen, who was assassinated by his brother, Langdharma.

Langdharma himself was later assassinated in 842 AD by a Buddhist monk disguised as a black hat dancer at a festival. Tibet quickly collapsed into warring principalities and support for monastic Buddhism fell. This led to a period of dormancy that lasted 150 years.

Following this collapse, Tibetan expansion into Asia ceased. And while Buddhism waned in India, China and Nepal, eventually monastic Buddhism began to grow and exert its influence on the Tibetan mind once again. Over time, Tibet emerged as the most devout Buddhist nation in the world. This period (950 – 1200) was named the Second Diffusion of the Dharma (Law).

This period also coincided with the Song Dynasty of China (960 – 1276), when Tibet and China were isolated from each other. This would change towards the end of the Song Dynasty when the Mongol overlord, Genghis Khan launched a series of conquests that gave rise to a vast empire covering Central Asia and China. The Mongols did not pay Tibet any attention until 1239, when a series of raiding parties ventured within its borders.

As a result of their invasion, the Mongols completely destroyed a number of monasteries and almost reached Lhasa. On their return home however, they brought with them stories of the spiritual eminence of the Tibetan lamas.

This intrigued Godon Khan, ruler of the Kokonor region. Godon Khan summoned the head of the Sakya Monastery in Tibet, Sakya Pandita, to his court. Following this meeting, a relationship between the militant Mongols and spiritual Tibetans was formed. This led to Tibetan Buddhism becoming the state religion of the Mongols in East Asia, and the head Sakya lama becoming their spiritual leader.

This alliance would last almost 100 years.

People

The Tibetan people comprise three main groups – nomads, farmers and urban residents.

Nomads

Tanned, with a strong physique and noble manner, the appearance of the Tibetan nomad resembles that of Native Americans. They wear leather robes and the women often tie their hair into small plaits, which are bundled into a larger braid and decorated with colourful stones.

Most nomads never enter towns or cities during the course of their lifetime. In the winter months, the nomads move down to the Yarlung Tsangpo river valley and barter for daily provisions like barley and tea. When spring comes, they return to the north.

Compared to Tibetans living in the south, the nomads have access to a wider range of food. Yak, sheep, antelope, and other similar animals are a great source of protein and fat for this community.

Farmers

Most Tibetan farmers wear grey or dark brown robes made of pulu (a type of wool).

Due to the harsh weather in Tibet, they can only grow crops like turnip, potatoes, barley and a few vegetables. They sometimes also raise cattle, but this can be a challenging affair as the extreme environment means cattle do not grow well because they can only eat straw. Dairy products such as milk, ghee, and cheese are considered precious in farming areas.

Urban Residents

Urban residents, such as government officials, handicraftsmen and businessmen, wear more refined garments. The men will usually wear a cotton or silk shirt under their robes. Whether poor or rich, they always wear a piece of turquoise on the right ear to show their status. The women wear clothes of brocade fabric and rainbow-coloured aprons (pangden), though the apron’s popularity depends on the region. It is said that the apron is worn mainly by women from U-Tsang region, and is not as prevalent in the Amdo and Kham regions. The reasons for the aprons are as equally varied – some say they are worn to indicate that a woman is married, whilst others say that it is worn at a certain age to indicate a woman has entered adulthood.

Tibetan Creation Fable

Tibetans believe that they were created through the union of a monkey who was a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara (the Bodhisattva of Compassion) and an ogress.

According to the myth, the union took place on Gangpo Ri Mountain in Tsetang and produced six offspring who are the ancestors of the six main tribes in Tibet – the Sе, Mu, Dоng, Tоng, Dru and Rа.

Language

The Tibetan script was created by the scholar Thonmi Sambhota during the reign of Songtsen Gampo.

He and 16 other young Tibetans were sent to India by King Songtsen Gampo to learn Sanskrit, and to devise a script for the Tibetan language. They studied language, grammar, lexicography, poetry, philosophy, literature and related topics for about seven years.

Thonmi Sambhota’s primary focus was the gender-relating sections of grammatical construction in Lha Rigpa Sengge’s phonological grammar texts. On his return to Tibet, he combined the Devanagari and Kashmiri scripts, and composed six reference texts for the new written language.

He also brought with him every available text on Sanskrit grammar and books on many other subjects. These texts are believed to be the first Buddhist texts to come to Tibet from India. Today, only two of them, Sumchupa (sum-bcu-pa) and Takijugpa (stags kyi ‘jug pa), have survived.

Food

Tibetan food is a reflection of the climate and its impact on the local agriculture, and the needs of the people to sustain themselves in the harsh environment of the region.

Khapse

Khapse

Khapse is a type of pastry traditionally prepared during Losar, the Tibetan New Year. The dough is made of flour, butter, sugar, and eggs. It can be of any shape and size, but the most common is a small rectangle that is twisted to produce a ribbon-like shape. The dough is then deep-fried until it is light brown. It is best eaten with Tibetan butter tea.

Thenthuk

Thenthuk

Thenthuk is a noodle dish. The name translates as “pulled noodle soup”. Thenthuk is a common Tibetan dish and can be found almost anywhere in the region. The ingredients of this delicious noodle soup are wheat flour dough, meat (normally yak meat or mutton) and vegetables.

Momo

Momo

Momo is a type of dumpling commonly found in Tibet, Sikkim, Darjeeling, Assam and Nepal. Momo can be served steamed or deep-fried. The filling can consist of cabbage, potato, coriander, onions, ginger, garlic, chicken, mutton, yak meat, paneer (cheese) and more. It is commonly served with a sauce on the side.

Tsampa

Tsampa

Tsampa is roasted barley flour. The roasted flour is mixed with Tibetan butter tea to form a dough, which is then rolled into small, round balls. The roasted flour breaks down quickly to provide a quick energy boost and is popular with Sherpas. Furthermore, because of its roasted nature, tsampa does not require any special storage. The flour is used in religious ceremonies to create tormas (ritual cakes), and is a common feature during festivals where it is tossed into the air to express joy and celebration.

Shabhaley

Shabhaley

Shabhaley is a bread dish that consists of meat and mixed vegetables cut into semi-circular or round shapes. It can be deep-fried or pan-fried, depending on the region.

Tingmo

Tingmo

Tingmo is a steamed bread similar to the Chinese steamed bun, mantou. It has no filling and is usually eaten with vegetable curry.

Korkun Balep

Korkun Balep

Korkun balep is a bread found almost exclusively in Tibet. Made of tsampa, baking powder and water, it is similar in appearance to the flat and round Indian bread, naan. The dough is cooked over a frying pan and it is relatively easy to make.

Vegetable Curry Gravy

Vegetable Curry Gravy

This soup-like vegetable curry is a common dish that is often served with tingmo.

Sepen

Sepen

Sepen is a type of Tibetan hot sauce made of chilli, tomato and other spices. It may also contain onion and celery. It is used to spice mild dishes, and commonly served alongside momo and shabhaley.

Tibetan Butter Tea

Tibetan Butter Tea

Butter tea, also known as bhod ja (meaning “Tibetan tea”), is widely consumed by people of the Himalayan regions. Traditionally, it is made of tea leaves, ghee (fat), salt, and water. It is common for Tibetans to have butter tea before they leave home for work. The ghee provides energy for those who live in higher altitudes and also prevents chapped lips. The butter tea is often taken with tsampa.

Tibetan Medicine

Traditional Tibetan Medicine (TTM) is thousands of years old and includes the essence of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), as well as Indian and Arabic medicine. It is a combination of ancient philosophy, biology, astronomy, chemistry and physics, all of which are closely connected to Tibetan Buddhism.

The founder of Tibetan medicine was Yutok Yonten Gonpo, who lived during the 8^th Century. Yutok studied medicine from other cultures, and used his experience and knowledge to compile the Tibetan medicine masterpiece called “The Four Medical Tantras”.

Apart from animals, more than 2,000 types of plants and 80 kinds of minerals can be found in Tibet. TTM uses only those indigenous resources; one example would be the use of ghee to stop bleeding.

The herbs and animals used in Tibetan medicine live at high altitudes in regions that are virtually free from pollution. This makes them more effective than similar medicines made from ingredients which are grown in less pristine environments.

Tibetans believe that all herbs contain the five elements – earth, water, wind, fire and space. Earth is the basic fundamental substance from which the herbs grow; water provides nutrients; wind is the power of movement; fire provides heat, and space is the room needed for the herbs to grow.

There are also six flavours of medicines: sweet, bitter, sour, salty, pungent, and acerbic. They all come from different combinations of the five elements.

According to ancient Tibetan medicine theory, the human body is made of the following elements:

Seven Substances

1. Flesh
2. Blood
3. Fat
4. Diet
5. Bone
6. Bone marrow
7. Seminal fluid

Three Excrements

1. Urine
2. Faeces
3. Sweat

Three Humours

1. Lung (wind)
2. Tripa (bile)
3. Beken (phlegm)

Each element has a unique function within the body. For example, lung (wind) is responsible for the movement of the body and the transportation of food. Tripa (bile) mediates body temperature and digestion. Beken (phlegm) is for sleep and also determines personality.

It is believed that people fall sick because of factors like the environment, diet, and climate. TTM treatments include acupuncture, bleeding, cupping, medicated baths, and moxibustion. As with TCM, diseases are classified into two groups – heat symptoms and cold symptoms.

There are over 1,400 TTM medications available to treat various ailments.

Sound Healing with Tibetan Bowls

Sound healing is rapidly gaining international recognition as an integral part of the healing process for cancer patients. It has been shown to be effective in relieving pain and in the treatment of stress-related afflictions such as chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, insomnia, and depression.

It is TTM’s approach that illness is a manifestation of disharmony within the body – an imbalance in the cells or an organ. All matter is energy vibrating at different rates and by altering the rate of vibration, we can change the structure of matter. Healing is achieved by restoring the normal vibratory frequencies of the diseased, out-of-harmony parts of the body. With sound healing, the healing process is initiated by training our brainwaves and creating sympathetic resonance with the perfect vibrations of the bowls.

Sound can redress imbalances on every level of physiological functioning and can play a positive role in the treatment of virtually any medical disorder. According to an article in Spirituality and Health magazine, research shows that the sound vibration of the bowls affects the dysrhythmic motion found in cancer cells and causes a harmonious transformation.

In a blind study, it was also discovered that there was a 50% shorter recovery time for chemo patients who used the bowls regularly. Results showed that when bowls were used during consultations with patients in the early stages of cancer, their levels of anxiety and stress were greatly reduced.

Traditional Tibetan Art and Crafts

Combining appreciation for craftsmanship as well as a means of expressing one’s spirituality, Tibetan art and crafts is today one of the most highly valued traditions in the world.

Dzi Beads

Tibetans have always attached great importance to jewellery. It is seen as a status symbol and holds great religious significance, with even the poorest of families keeping some beads as amulets.

The meaning of the word Dzi (pronounced as ‘zee’) corresponds to shine, brightness and sharpness. Dzi beads are covered with mystical patterns and are an important part of Tibetan culture. Based on the strange drawings in Dzi beads, which point to shamanism and witchcraft, it is believed that they come from the time of the Bön religion.

Scientists remain fascinated by the Dzi beads despite the lack of documented evidence surrounding their origins. It is difficult to be certain because archaeological expedition is prohibited in Tibet. Tibetans themselves believe the Dzi to be of supernatural origin, and it is said that the beads choose their owners and do not stay with someone who does not follow religious principles.

So many stories and legends surround their origins and use. Some say demi-gods wore Dzi beads as jewellery and that if it was damaged, the bead lost its powers and would be discarded.

There are also stories about Dzi beads being insects that lived in the earth and these insects turned to stone once a human hand touched them. Others say that a simple look is enough to trigger the transformation. These ‘insects’ were sometimes found in the excrement of cattle or in the horns of dead animals. The insect theory is often used to explain why they are often found in these conditions. One legend states that even after the beads are dug out of the ground, they continue to move on their own for some time.

Another legend states that they came out of a mountain, flowing down its slopes in streams. An angry Tibetan woman threw a glance at the mountain and froze them. A more modern story associated with the beads states that all the passengers on a bus will perish in a road accident if just one of them is not carrying a Dzi bead.

These stories reinforce the belief that Dzi are magical, and can protect their owners from trouble and disease. Some say the beads may be used to fight devils and bad spirits and for protection from misfortune, sickness and sudden death; Traditional Tibetan Medicine itself uses powder from intact beads in a mixture with other substances to treat epilepsy.

Each of the colours and designs in the beads has its own meaning. For example, a one-eyed Dzi bead increases wisdom. The two-eyed Dzi brings love and strengthens relationships. Nine-eyed Dzi beads bring blessings and good luck, and protect its wearer from misfortunes and negativity. A thirteen-eyed Dzi bead promotes serenity and tranquility while a fifteen-eyed Dzi will bring excellent luck to its wearer. A twenty-one eyed Dzi helps to fulfil wishes, and brings fame and fortune.

Despite their association with spirituality, Dzi beads can be used by everyone because they do not belong to any particular religion their sole purpose is to help human beings. Dzi beads were often added to costume jewellery and can also be found on some women’s ornaments.

Tibetan Incense

Tibetan incense refers to a particular type of incense found in Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal. It can contain 30 or more herbal ingredients.

The oldest accounts of its use are found in ancient Hindu texts that are more than 3,000 years old. They tell us that the Tibetan people, particularly Bön priests, used incense as an offering to deities. Later, when Buddhism was introduced to the Tibetan Empire, Bön practices like this were absorbed into Buddhist traditions.

The art of traditional incense-making was almost lost when Muslims invaded India and began an oppressive attack on Buddhism. Fortunately, Buddhists monks contained and preserved incense-making recipes.

In 1959, when the Chinese annexed Tibet, thousands of Tibetans were forced into exile. They fled to India and brought with them the scriptures containing the recipes. This is why almost all traditional Tibetan incense is made by Tibetan refugees in India. They use the same ingredients of minerals, herbs, flowers and aromatic plants, as well as the same techniques that have been used for millennia. These ingredients possess medicinal and therapeutic properties, and are used to treat various ailments in Traditional Tibetan Medicine which places particular emphasis on the incenses’ non-toxic and healing properties.

Incense is also used in simple rituals that have important spiritual meaning. Burning incense is considered to be an act of offering which is selfless, generous, and devoid of worldly concerns. The fragrance awakens and relaxes our senses, and brings positive energy to the soul. Tibetans believe that offering incense creates the causes for one to develop higher insight, integrity and consistency of spiritual practice, as well as a greater ability to hold one’s vows.

Burning incense also teaches us a valuable lesson about life. When a stick is lit, it burns brightly and the pleasing aroma represents the ups in life. As it continues to burn, it is eventually reduced to ashes, symbolising the end of life and to the impermanence of the human state.

Today, Tibetan incense is extremely popular all over the world, can be found in thousands of households of various cultures where it is enjoyed for its fragrant scent and purifying properties.

Tibetan Rugs

Tibet, the mountainous holy land of Buddhist traditions, is also known for its unique arts and crafts. One of the most sought-after local handicrafts is the Tibetan rug.

The designs of these rugs are similar to the intricate, jewel-toned patterns of Persian, Turkish and Chinese rugs. However, rugs from Tibet and Nepal share an unusual and highly refined technique of hand-knotting. The painstaking care with which the makers use Tibetan knots is one of the reasons Tibetan rugs are so luxurious and the craftsmanship of this method, combined with the distinctive colours and designs, make these rugs truly unique.

While Tibetan rug makers are not the only artisans to use hand-knotting, the particular refinement of their technique, and their choice of motifs and pattern set it uniquely apart. The makers use natural silk fibre and the softest refined wool. Cotton, canvas, or wool fabric are used to create the rug backing, and the knots are then pulled through and trimmed. This technique can create rugs of varying textures and pile lengths.

As with rugs crafted by Navajo artisans, a deep sense of spiritual purpose lies behind each genuine Tibetan rug. The Tibetan rug artists draw inspiration from many Asian cultures and, oftentimes, incorporate into their designs plant motifs that have powerful symbolism. For example, patterns representing renewal and long life are commonly seen in bamboo rugs. Some of the designs also feature plum blossoms and forsythia branches as symbols of beauty, grace and the passage of time.

Rug designs are also often intended to elicit a certain mood, for example serenity or excitement. Sometimes, geometric shapes are used to create intriguing patterns within patterns, similar to the effect of infinity we see when two mirrors are placed opposite each other.

Other rugs are so understated that it can be hard to discern a pattern at all. Observers can lose themselves in the rug’s weave and allow the cares of the world to drift away. These rugs can be used for meditation.

One of the most prized characteristics of these rugs, and one that makes them ideal for any decor, is the skilful combination of wool and silk in the same weave. It produces rugs with a luminescent sheen that catches and reflects light in ever-changing waves.

Tibetan rugs have come into their own recently as both exquisite accessories and highly collectible ornaments. Some dealers think that Tibetan rugs may soon catch up to classic Persian rugs as valued heirlooms.

Tibetan Pottery

Earthenware has always played an important role in the daily life of Tibetans. The history of Tibetan pottery dates back over 5000 years. The evidence for this comes from complete artefacts as well as fragments which have been dated to the Neolithic age. They were unearthed at the Karub ruins in Chamdo, and are remarkable for their intricate patterns and fine details.

The dermatoglyphic patterns on these artefacts were made by a combination of methods, including pasting, carving, moulding and painting. Some feature naturalistic designs such as the lotus flower, sun and moon, or dragons. Other display abstract geometric patterns made from water streaks, lozenges and straight lines.

Pottery in Tibet fall into two broad categories – those for religious rituals and those for everyday usage – and they vary from coarse, sandy products to glazed pottery, all of which come in various colours and shades. Over 20 shapes, including the urn, jar, olla, stove, pot, bowl, basin, incense holder and cup are very common.

Religious earthenware is used for worship, consecration and burial, and they are painted in symbolic colours. Modern religious pottery designs usually consist of striking black and white prints against a red background. Everyday pottery is generally not painted and comes in a variety of shapes.

In early Tibet, earthenware containers were used for offerings to deities in rituals and at religious events. They also came to symbolise wealth and power. After the Tubo period, the funeral system was reformed; pottery was used for worship but no longer buried with the dead.

Earthenware continues to be used widely across Tibet. The high demand drives a thriving domestic pottery production industry, with factories throughout the region.

Of course, the imprinted shapes and dermatoglyphic patterns, as well as the technology used to create them, have progressed considerably. In fact, pottery-making is so advanced in some areas that it has attracted national and international acclaim. Gyantse, Maizhokunggar, Lhunzhub, Mangkang, Chanang, Chagyab, and Sog lead the way here.

A popular trend today is ‘combination pottery’. An example would be a piece that consists of a pot above a jar, with the pot’s base doubling as the jar’s cover. Animal-shaped pottery is also becoming increasingly popular, and pieces which incorporate creative functionality into the design sell very well.

Gau

Gau (also spelled ghao) boxes, or prayer boxes, often come in the form of handcrafted silver lockets. Although used by many religious and faiths, it is believed that gau boxes originate from either the Buddhist or Hindu faith. Many people wear them today for aesthetic rather than for religious reasons.

Whilst non-religious gau boxes might contain inspirational quotes, poems or pictures of loved ones, religious gau boxes might contain a small piece of paper inscribed with a prayer. They may also be used to contain small religious objects, such as an amulet or image of a religious deity. They are believed to aid the wearer in focusing the mind in prayer, as well as functioning as a protective amulet.

The images of important religious teachers or deities and religious symbols are often crafted onto the gau box. The Om symbol and the Tibetan prayer wheel are also popular.

Many gau boxes also have a gemstone-like turquoise incorporated into the design. The gemstone itself does not hold any particular religious significance, but simply adds colour and beauty to the box. It is not uncommon for someone to buy a gau box with their birth month gemstone.

Gau boxes can be made from a range of materials and their price will vary accordingly. They are most commonly made from sterling silver, as well as silver, gold, brass, copper, or with other similarly lightweight materials.

Tibetan Knives

The Tibetan knife is a traditional accessory of the Tibetan people. It is often worn at the waist and used for self-defence, hunting and cutting. It can also be used as decoration. Tourists are attracted to its exquisite design and often purchase them as souvenirs or as gifts for friends. Larger knives can be over one metre (3.3 feet) long while smaller ones may be just 10cm long. It takes great skill to make a Tibetan knife. The blade is usually forged from wrought iron, then sharpened and brightened manually. This is a long and labour-intensive process.

The handle of a Tibetan knife is most commonly made from ox horn, bone or wood. It may also be wrapped with silver or copper wire. The most beautiful part is arguably the sheath. Made of wood or leather, it is usually adorned with brass, cupronickel (coppernickel) or silver. Gems, gold plating and intricate patterns of animals, flowers or plants complete the stunning design.

Knives for men and women differ – those for men are functional and aggressively shaped, while women’s designs are more refined and elegant. Knives made in different parts of Tibet also vary in shape. The most famous Tibetan knives come from Lhatse and Zhethongmon of Shigatse, and Damxung of Lhasa.

Tibetan Tables

Tibetan tables come in a variety of shapes, sizes and decorative styles. They are among the earliest forms of Tibetan furniture. Some tables are made specifically for religious use while others are used in the home. They may be painted and carved with great detail, or kept plain with a simple coat of varnish.

The variety of tables is so great that it is sometimes difficult to determine if a design should be called a table or something else. For example, some tables are constructed to look like cabinets and feature shelves and swinging doors. Only their dimensions make them seem like tables.

Other Tibetan tables resemble what we would normally call a ‘stand’. They have a front and two sides but are open at the back. Some of these backless tables may have a bar or a shelf which holds the sides rigid. Tables like these are commonly used in monasteries. Monks sit on cushions behind the tables so a back would hamper access. The monk sits behind the open back and can keep their belongings either hidden behind the table or on its top surface.

Then, there are tables with drawers. Many of hardwood tables come with drawers which run the length of the table. Another style of table has carved legs of various designs. Some resemble Western cabriole-style legs, while others resemble Chinese tables. There are also many other hybrid forms.

Tibetan Cabinets

Tibetan cabinets have mortise and tenon joints with the top pegged in place. Instead of nails or screws, they are held together by glue. It is common for only the front of the cabinet to be decoratively painted though occasionally, the sides may have simple designs too. Sometimes, just one side is decorated. All of these, of course, will influence the final cost of the cabinet.

This eccentricity may indicate its original placement in a room or that it was originally part of a set. Tibetan cabinets were often built and decorated as pairs placed side-by-side. Here, the left side of one cabinet and the right side of the other would be painted while the remaining sides that were never meant to be seen were left unadorned.

Tibetan Quilts

Quilts are an indispensable part of Tibetan daily life, ideal for the windy and cold living conditions. Tibetan quilts are made from soft local wools and are delicate, warm and durable. The best quilts are made from pure, thin wool. While an ordinary Tibetan quilt lasts at least eight years, the best ones can last two generations.

There are four main types, namely those with two-thread weaves, three-thread weaves, four-thread weaves and the high-grade quilt. They typically weigh 5, 7, 8 and 12.5 kilograms respectively. These quilts are made using a unique weaving method that was first discovered in Nanggarze. Today, most Tibetan quilts are mainly made in Lhasa, Shigatse or Shannan, with the best coming from Shannan.

Tibetan Mandala

The word ‘mandala’ is of Hindu origin and is also used in Buddhist practice. A Sanskrit term meaning “circle”, it has since become a general term for any geometric symbol that represents the cosmic energy metaphysically or symbolically. Various forms of mandala design are used as aids to meditation and trance induction.

The famous psychoanalyst, Carl Jung saw mandala designs as manifestations of the unconscious self. He used them to identify emotional disorders and work towards wholeness in personality.

The visualisation and concretion of the mandala concept is one of Buddhism’s most significant contributions to religious psychology. Mandalas are seen as sacred places which, by their very presence in the world, remind a viewer of their own potential as well as the inherent sanctity in the universe. In the context of the Buddhist path, the purpose of a mandala is to put an end to human suffering, to attain enlightenment, and to attain a correct view of reality. It is a way to discover divinity by realising that divinity itself resides within one’s own self.

The Kalachakra Mandala, for instance, portrays 722 deities within its complex structure. Smaller mandalas like the one attributed to Vajrabhairava contain considerably fewer deities and require less geometry but can still take several days to create.

As with all mandalas, these are meant to be two-dimensional representatives of a three-dimensional space. The Sri Yantra, or Shree Yantra, is considered the prime mandala and the most sacred of all. It features a complex multi-triangular cosmic grid that is formed by nine interlocking triangles around its centre. These nine triangles interlace to form 43 smaller triangles. This intricate web is symbolic of the entire cosmos and the womb of creation. And not only is it perfectly symmetrical but its shape alludes to transcendence beyond the darkness of the water and mud where its roots lie. The Sri Yantra mandala is also used as a symbol for good luck and is believed to usher in prosperity.

Tibetan Thangka Art

‘Thangka’ is the Tibetan word for painting. Thangka painting is an ancient Tibetan Buddhist art form with a history that stretches back more than a thousand years.

Thangkas are also known as scroll paintings and they are created in a vertical format, usually about 0.5m to 1.5m high. For special ceremonies, large thangkas have been made that require dozens of people to unroll and display them.

Thangka art usually features deities and venerable teachers such as Lord Buddha Shakyamuni. These images inspire through their beauty and provide a visual focus for those practising meditation.

The origins of thangkas are believed to lie in the early 7^th Century with a Chinese style of painting known today as the old Gadri style. Another style called Menri originated in Nepal in the 9^th Century. These two schools combined to form what is now recognised as Tibetan thangka art.

Gadri established itself in the eastern part of Tibet while Menri was popular in the central and western part of the country. In 1500, the Gadri style underwent a renaissance driven by the artist, Namka Tashi. Tashi was linked to the Great Saint, Mikyo Dorje, the 8^th Karmapa. Further significant contributions came from the artists Cho Tashi and Kasho Karma Tashi. Together, these three artists established what has been known as the Karma Gadri style of Tibetan thangka painting.

Like religious wall paintings, thangkas are considered intermediaries between the mortal and divine worlds.

Types of Thangkas

Traditional painted thangkas were composed using mineral and vegetable pigments in a hide glue medium. Silk brocade borders became common during the early Ming and Qing period. Contemporary thangkas are typically painted in gouache on cotton fabric. There are also different variations available:

1. The dpar ma is woodblock-printed thangka that is produced on a canvas. A block of wood is engraved with an outline of the painting, coloured, then pressed onto the canvas. This simplifies the painting process and also has a pleasing effect on the finished piece.
2. The metal thangka, whose durability and foldable concept makes it ideal for the frequent traveller.
3. The papier-mache thangka is unique for the three-dimensional appearance of the central image.
4. The tshen drub ma is an embroidered thangka that is typically made in the far eastern part of Tibet and China for export.
5. Woven thangkas were created in the 1960s due to the lack of traditional thangka-painting artists at the time.
6. The dras-drab-ma, gos-sku, or applique thangka consists of many individual pieces of cloth in a single thangka.

Tibetan Stone and Rock Carving

Sometimes several feet high, these incredible cravings are a common sight for anyone travelling in Tibet or, indeed, in the Himalayan region in general.

Tibetan Rock Carving

Tibetan rock carvings include grotto sculptures, inscriptions on precipices and mani stone carvings (of the mantra Om Mani Padme Hum).

Tibetan Stone Carving

The Tibetan black stone can be found in any Tibetan home. It is seen as a propitious stone that can drive out evil and attract good fortune. It is not very expensive because it is made by machines, as opposed to being crafted by hand.

Mani Stones

Mani stones are stone plates, rocks, or pebbles that are inscribed with the six-syllable mantra of Avalokiteshvara – “OM MANI PADME HUM” – that gives it its name. The term “mani stone” may also be used in a loose sense to refer to stones on which any mantra or devotional designs, such as ashtamangala, are inscribed.

Mani stones are placed along roadsides and rivers, or formed into mounds, cairns and walls as an offering to local spirits. These stone altars are made for three reasons: to pray for happiness, to avert disasters, and for the correction of thoughts and behaviours. With Tibet being such a vast and sparsely-populated land, mani piles also function as scripture halls. They are an important part of the spiritual life for those living in remote areas.

The practice of carving mani stones is believed to aid meditation. Mani stones are also a form of devotional cintamani or wish-fulfilling jewel.

Tibetan Fairs and Festivals

The kaleidoscopic fairs and festivals of Tibet are a testament to the vibrant culture of Buddhists. Festive seasons transform the barren mountain land into a lively tapestry of colour, joy and laughter.

Tibetan New Year (Losar)

The Tibetan calendar is based on thirteen lunar cycles, and Losar begins on the first day of the first month. However, many of the preparations begin the day before.

Various festivals and celebrations are held throughout Tibet and in Tibetan exile communities around the world. In monasteries, monks perform a special ritual or puja to honour the protector deities. During this time, the special Losar drink known as changkol is brewed with chang, a type of Tibetan barley beer.

The special noodle, guthuk used in many of the dishes, also has to be prepared the day before Losar begins. Another item prepared in advance are dough balls with chillies, salt, wool, or coal hidden inside. These ingredients are supposed to be indicators of your personality; if you receive a dough ball that has chillies inside, it means that you are talkative. Finding coal in your dough ball carries the same meaning as finding a lump of coal in your Christmas stocking.

Losar, as an auspicious date, is viewed by many as a good opportunity to make New Year’s resolutions.

History of Losar

The celebration of Losar began before Buddhism arrived on the Tibetan plateau. At that time, most of the local inhabitants practised the Bön religion. Winter ceremonies were held to offer incense and religious poems or prayers to pacify Bön spirits and deities. These religious rites evolved into a Buddhist festival during the reign of Pude Gungyal, the ninth King of Tibet.

According to folklore, the change occurred when a woman named Belma introduced the concept of measuring time according to the phases of the moon. It may have originally begun as a farmers’ festival as earlier accounts of the celebration focused on harvest, cultivation, and healthy crops.

New Year Traditions

On the first day of Losar, it is customary to offer His Holiness the Dalai Lama tse-ril (long-life pills) made from dough. In Namgyal Monastery, sacrificial cakes are offered to the deities. The Dalai Lama and the abbots of the three primary monasteries offer up prayers while monks recite Palden Lhamo (state protector deity of Tibet) prayers.

This is followed by a formal greeting ceremony. Next, the Dance of Happy New Year Wishes is performed by the garma (entertainers) and a debate on Buddhist philosophy is held. An official will make a request that the current Dalai Lama and all of the followers of Buddhism have long and peaceful lives to enable them to continue on their enlightened paths.

The first day of the Tibetan New Year ends with a farewell to His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who will then retire to his quarters. The second day of the New Year, known as gyal-po lo-sar, is for secular gatherings. On this day, the Dalai Lama will meet with dignitaries from other countries.

The third day marks the beginning of the ‘common’ celebrations with family and friends. People gather together to party and ring in the new year. It’s also when the changkol, which was prepared on the first day, is finally ready to be consumed.

Losar was originally celebrated for 15 days. Today, it is now more commonly celebrated for three days.

Hemis Festival

The Hemis Festival is celebrated in Hemis Gompa with great pomp and grandeur. The festival commemorates the birth of Guru Padmasambhava, the founder of Tantric Buddhism in Tibet. It is celebrated every 12 years according to the Tibetan lunar calendar.

The highlight is the unveiling of the largest thangka in Ladakh.

Sindhu Darshan Festival

Sindhu Darshan is the best way to experience Ladakh culture. The festival promotes national integrity and communal harmony. Visitors can shop for local handicrafts while getting to know the local people, their rich culture and their traditions.

The cultural programmes performed by people from different parts of the region are a major attraction of the festival. The evening features a grand feast, music and dancing around the campfire at night.

Saga Dawa Festival

‘Saga’ means ‘fourth’ and ‘Dawa’ means ‘month’ in Tibetan. This month-long festival is one of the most significant events of the year in Tibet. The fifteenth day is especially important as it is the day that Buddha Shakyamuni was born, attained nirvana (enlightenment), and passed into parinirvana (death). Tibetans believe that they can accumulate an immense amount of merits on this day through acts of generosity, by refraining from killing animals and abstaining from meat.

The festival is marked by cham dancing, chanting and other religious activities. The festival is called “Qiong Ren Jie” in Chinese, which means ‘Poor People’s Day’. This is in recognition of the generosity of Tibetans to those less fortunate.

Saga Dawa Festival

• Hundreds of Tibetan people circumambulate the Barkhor, Tsekhor, and Lingkhor (popular circumambulation paths around various holy sites in the capital city Lhasa)
• Liberation of fish in Lhasa River (Kyichu) and of other animals
• Chanting and prayer recital in monasteries
• Hundreds line up at Drepung kitchen to make donations to the monks chanting prayers
• After visiting the monastery, Tibetans go for picnics at scenic spots around Lhasa
• Even during picnics, older Tibetans can be found reciting mantras with a rosary in their left hand and a small prayer wheel in their right

Shoton Festival

‘Shoton’ is Tibetan for ‘yogurt banquet’. The Shoton Festival features ethnic songs and dances accompanied by Tibetan opera performances at Norbulingka Palace, and exhibitions of Buddha paintings. This is why it is also called the Tibetan Opera Festival or the Buddha Exhibition Festival.

Ladakh Festival

This major festival in the Ladakh region is celebrated with high spirits. Organised by Jammu and Kashmir Tourism, it showcases the vibrant culture of Ladakh. Folk dances and music are the prime attractions of this festival.

Tashilhunpo Monastery Festival

This important religious festival was first celebrated over 500 years ago. Also known as the Buddha Exhibition Festival of Tashilhunpo Monastery, it is very popular among locals and tourists alike.

The celebration is held in the middle of the fifth lunar Tibetan month and lasts for three days. A different Buddha is exhibited on each day.

• The first day belongs to Buddha Amitabha (Infinite Light). It reminds people to cherish memories of the past.
• On the second day, a statue of Buddha Shakyamuni created by His Holiness the 9^th Panchen Lama is displayed. This exhibition inspires people to pray for happiness.
• Maitreya (the future Buddha) is exhibited on the third day. It encourages people to hold high aspirations for the future.

The festival culminates with the unveiling of a huge, four-storey thangka on a tower behind the monastery and after the ceremony, Buddhists circumambulate the monastery. It is customary for locals to gather at the square therafter to share barley wine.

Tsurphu Cham Dance Festival

The Tsurphu Cham Dance Festival falls on the tenth day of the fourth month of the Tibetan calendar. It commemorates the great Indian guru, Padmasambhava who came to Tibet and devoted himself to promoting Buddhism. Religious activities like the Grand Dharma Assembly and Buddha Exhibition are also held during this festival.

The Cham dance is a combination of plots, characters, music and dance. However, it is different from Tibetan Opera and has greater significance in religion.

Many Tibetan monasteries have their own Cham group, and each has its unique masks, costumes, decorations and musical instruments. These are treasured items kept in the temple and dancers have to go through several religious rituals before using them.

Gyantse Damar Festival

The Gyantse Damar Festival is known to have started as an athletic competition in the 1400s. As it developed into an important inter-village gathering, elements of Buddhist worship and other festivities were added.

Festival Highlights:

• Horse and yak races
• Beautifully-decorated horses
• Horsemen in colourful ethnic attire
• Wrestling, track and field events, and ball games
• Archery competitions
• Tibetan opera, singing and dancing
• Hundreds of businessmen displaying local products
• Tibetan spectators in traditional garments
• Thousands of foreign visitors and journalists
• Hundreds of tents full of spectators

Tibetan Fairy Festival (The Women’s Festival)

The Fairy Festival is also known as the Women’s Festival but is traditionally known as the Palden Lhamo Festival, Tianmu Festival, or Bailairizhui. It is celebrated when the plateau welcomes its chilly winter.

On this unique day, women and girls dress up to make pilgrimages to temples and present khatas (ceremonial silk scarves) to their fairies. The festival is unique in that they can ask for money from any man they meet, and men are expected to give generously so that they will be blessed with good luck in the coming year. In cities like Lhasa, women may also ask their male colleagues or supervisors to treat them to a huge banquet.

During this festival, parents also give money to children as gifts to celebrate a plentiful autumn harvest. Thousands gather at Jokhang Temple to worship and pay homage to the Protectoress Palden Lhamo and Songtsen Gampo.

Great Prayer Festival (Monlam)

The Great Prayer Festival, Monlam is held from the fourth to the eleventh day of the first Tibetan month. This celebration was established in 1409 by Lama Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug sect of Tibetan Buddhism. During the festival, thousands of monks from the three main monasteries of Drepung, Sera and Gaden gather to chant prayers and perform religious rituals at the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. Worshippers congregate here to pray and offer donations.

Monks also perform traditional Tibetan Buddhist dances, and the Jokhang Temple hosts debates between lamas, who may also pose questions to the leaders of Tibetan Buddhism and debate with them. Examinations for the Lharampa Geshe degree, the highest degree in Buddhist philosophy in the Gelug tradition, are held during the festival.

The highlight of the celebrations is the Butterlamp Festival or Chunga Chopa. Huge ritual offering cakes called tormas are adorned with elaborate butter sculptures, making them a popular attraction amongst visitors.

The centre of the festivities is Barkhor Street, which is transformed into a beautiful wonderland with the colourful butterlamps for decoration.

Washing Festival

The Washing Festival is a weeklong celebration early in the seventh month of the Tibetan calendar. It is associated with Gamariji (Venus) and is marked by mass bathing that begins when the planet rises in the sky. The bathing period ends when the star sets.

According to legend, bathing while Venus is in the sky is beneficial to health. According to Tibetan Buddhism, the water at this time has eight advantages: it is sweet, cool, soft, light, clear, clean, unharmful to throat, and unharmful to belly.

Tens of thousands of Tibetans bathe in rivers and lakes during the Washing Festival. This is accompanied by the beautiful sight of thousands of colourful tents dotting the banks.

Interesting Facts About Tibet

1. Foreign travel to Tibet used to be prohibited

Foreign travel to Tibet was prohibited until the 1980s. The beautiful landscape and Tibetan Buddhism draw many tourists today but some areas of the region remain out of bounds to them.

2. The Roof of the World

Massive mountains create a barrier between Tibet and the surrounding region. The average height of these mountains is over 22,900 feet, earning Tibet the name “The Roof of the World”. There are five mountains in Tibet that are over 26,000 feet high. They include Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak.

3. Sea of Dances and Songs

Tibetans are great fans of music and dancing. The locals gather around a bonfire almost every evening and traditional instruments can be heard late into the night. Either butter tea or chang (Tibetan barley beer) will be served. If you visit Tibet, do not miss the chance to experience this.

4. Freshwater from Tibet supplies almost 47% of the world’s population

The Tibetan plateau has one of the largest stores of water and ice in the world. Many rivers, forests, lakes, glaciers, and wetlands in Tibet supply key environmental resources to Asia.

5. Buddhism plays a key role in Tibet’s culture

In Tibet, Buddhism is more than just a religion or belief; it has a great influence on the daily lives of everyone who lives here. Tibetan Buddhism emphasises the need for humans to co-exist with nature and maintain a balance. This is why construction is kept to a minimum – you will never see huge modern buildings in the region.

Do’s and Don’ts

Tibetan culture is one of the most hospitable in the world. Tibetans treat their guests with the utmost respect. Following the cultural norms is not difficult and makes for a very engaging and fulfilling trip.

Here is a list of Do’s and Don’ts to help you show respect as a guest in Tibet.

• Try to speak Tibetan or make some jokes.
• Don’t embarrass your hosts by asking them for things they can’t provide.

Food

• Dоn’t ѕmеll уоur fооd.
• Don’t ask to be shown the food while people are cooking.
• Don’t throw away leftover tea and don’t finish the tea that has been offered to you, leave at least 10-20% of tea in the cup.
• Eat and drink at least a little of whatever the host offers you.
• Yоu dоn’t nееd tо finiѕh еvеrуthing уоu аrе оffеrеd.
• If you want more food, ask the host – don’t just help yourself.
• It is not impolite to ask for more.
• Dоn’t rub уоur bеllу оr ѕtrеtсh уоur аrmѕ аftеr a mеаl.
• You may burp and eat noisily while eating.
• Don’t take leftovers for yourself.
• Eаt аѕ muсh аѕ уоu nееd.

Elders and Lamas

• As a sign of respect, you should stand up whenever elders or lamas enter or leave.
• Answer clearly when elders or lamas address you.
• If you meet a lama, remove your hat and bend down a little.
• Don’t sit with your back facing elders.
• Don’t call elders directly by name.
• Be patient with elders, and flatter them a little from time to time.

Modest Conduct

• Don’t wear revealing clothing, such as short pants or clothes that show your arms
• Don’t kiss or hug people of the opposite sex.
• You can shake hands.
• Apart from questions about sex and love, feel free to ask any questions.
• Don’t touch the top of anyone’s head.
• Men and women shouldn’t sit too close to each other.
• Don’t stare at anyone for a long time.
• Men should avoid making contact with women they don’t know.
• Generally, women shouldn’t smoke or drink alcohol.
• Don’t boast about yourself.

The Shrines and Religious Objects

• Don’t point your fingers at images of lamas, Buddhas or deities. Use your outstretched hand with upturned palm instead.
• Don’t put your shoes or socks beside a shrine.
• Don’t wash or comb your hair near a shrine.
• Don’t take photos in the shrine.
• Don’t smoke in the shrine.
• Take off your hat when you enter a house.
• Sit wherever the host asks you to sit.
• Don’t stretch your legs out when you sit. If you can, cross your legs.
• Don’t step over other people (not even their feet) or their clothes.
• Don’t step over or straddle books or photographs.
• If you are a woman wearing a skirt, gather it together when you pass people sitting on the floor and don’t let the skirt brush others.
• Men should generally sit on the right-hand side of the room.

Household Objects

• Don’t put your shoes or socks beneath a pillow.
• Don’t pass things like clothes or shoes over the stove.
• Don’t wash or comb your hair near the stove.
• Don’t step on pillows or quilts.
• Receive bowls and cups with two hands respectfully.

Gifts

• Always bring gifts such as candy or pocket money for children.
• If you can, bring a gift for the rest of the family as well. Fruit, meat, milk and brick tea make excellent gifts. Present the gift with two hands, with a khata (ceremonial silk scarf).

Travel Guides

1. Lonely Planet Tibet (Travel Guide)

Written and researched by Lonely Planet, Bradley Mayhew, John Vincent Bellezza and Robert Kelly.

Click on image to enlarge

2. Tibet (Bradt Travel Guide)

Author: Michael Buckley

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For more interesting information:

• Best Things to Do in Lhasa, Tibet
• Trode Khangsar – A 400 year old Dorje Shugden Chapel in Lhasa | 拉萨400年历史的多杰雄登护法殿—布旦康萨
• Wonderful Lhasa
• I visited the holy Jokhang Temple, Lhasa 2008
• Updates from Tibet and elsewhere
• The Truth About Who Saved the 14th Dalai Lama
• Dorje Shugden’s 2022 Losar Advice
• Dorje Shugden’s 2021 Losar Advice
• Dorje Shugden’s 2020 Losar Advice
• Losar Cards from Gaden & Pukhang Khangtsen
• Thonmi Sambhota: Inventor of the Tibetan Script
• Trisong Detsen, the Great Dharma King of Tibet
• The Tamer of Demons: King Trisong Detsen
• Tibetans seek greener pastures
• Tibetan Resistance group Chushi Gangdruk reveals how Dalai Lama escaped in 1959

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